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What is Maca?

Maca is an annual and biennial herbaceous plant (1) and one of the 249 known Lepidium species of plants (2). Maca is the common name that refers to two distinct species known as Lepidium meyenii and Lepidium peruvianum (3). While it belongs to the same botanical Brassicaceae family as the turnip, cabbage, mustard, and broccoli, it is phytochemically distinct from this vegetable group (4).

 

Maca’s native growing location is 3500–5000 meters above sea level in Peru’s high, harsh-weathered Andean plateaus (5–9). Though it is also grown in Bolivia and northwestern Argentina and due to the increased demand in more recent years, it is also being grown in China (10–12). Of note, a recent publication in 2024 (13) indicated that maca has been used in Tibet and Taiwan for thousands of years, citing an article from 2012 by Gonzales, et al, as a reference to this. Unfortunately, the 2012 article does not mention this. At this time, there has been a request to update this information to ensure accuracy of scientific information since maca is native to South America, where its use has existed for thousands of years.

 

Maca, first described in 1553, serves as a dietary staple of native Peruvians, particularly in its dried hypocotyl (tuber) format at >20 g daily (4). In the mid to late 17th century, it was reported that Peruvians revered maca for its nutritional content, ability to grow in some of the coldest areas of the mountains, and for its impact on fertility (10).

 

As a traditional Peruvian food, it is roasted, commonly added to soups, made into a fermented beverage called “maca chica”, and can be ground into a powder to be added to smoothies, juices, coffee, chocolate, or oil preparations (14).

 

Historically it was known for and used as an aphrodisiac, dating back to the Inca empire (14), though it is also reported it was used primarily for energy (10). In modern times, it has been used therapeutically for energy, fertility, libido, and as a vitality tonic for aging (4,15,16). Beginning with the early 2000s, preclinical and clinical research has provided data that would expand maca’s use into other areas of health such as menstrual cycle regulation (17,18), menopausal symptoms (19–22), osteoporosis (23), sperm quality (24–30), memory (31–34), mood (33,35), prostate health (36–41), and fitness optimization (e.g., reducing inflammation and increasing strength) (42–44).

 

Even though maca has broader applications, there has been historical research emphasis on its ability to modify the endocrine system, pioneered by the work of Gonzales et al. on males (24,26,30,40,45,46) and Meissner et al. on pre- and post-menopausal women (19–22). Meissner et al. continue to conduct ongoing research at five universities in Poland to investigate the use of different maca phenotypes to treat specific medical conditions associated with various menopausal symptoms, men’s health, and even prevalent health areas of concern shared by both genders (47).

 

Parts of maca

 

The main edible portions are the hypocotyl (tuber) and tap root, commonly referred to as hypocotyl and root in the literature (48), when it is noted. The plant can grow to approximately 20 cm (about 8 inches) in height with the root measuring up to 7 cm in diameter (48). A medium sized root, measuring 5 cm long and 3-5 cm wide, is often preferred by Peruvians due to its shorter cooking time (49). Additionally, the shape of the root also has variations growing spherical, oval, spherical oval, and spindle shaped (48). The aerial parts consisting of the leaves, flowers, stems, and its seeds (contained in a silicle) are less utilized (48). Generally, hypocotyls are the plant part of maca harvested and processed for food and supplements, rather than the leaves, which are sometimes used for animal feed (50). In comparison to the other parts of the plant, the hypocotyls are higher in glucosinolates, macaenes, and macamides, while the leaves are noted to have greater beta-sitosterol and total phenols (50).

Maca Parts.png

Image 1: Parts of Maca

Image credit: Minich DM, Ross K, Frame J, Fahoum M, Warner W, Meissner HO. Not All Maca Is Created Equal: A Review of Colors, Nutrition, Phytochemicals, and Clinical Uses. Nutrients. 2024 Feb 14;16(4):530. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Colors of Maca

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The most known or obvious feature of the root is the variations in colors (also referred to as phenotypes), for which 17 different colors have been identified (47). The most researched colors are black, red, yellow, and purple (violet). The hypocotyl is the part of the plant where colorful pigments are contained in the skin (outer layer), with one exception of yellow maca, which is also yellow on the inside flesh (50).

Image 2: Seventeen (17) Colors of maca

Image credit: Minich DM, Ross K, Frame J, Fahoum M, Warner W, Meissner HO. Not All Maca Is Created Equal: A Review of Colors, Nutrition, Phytochemicals, and Clinical Uses. Nutrients. 2024 Feb 14;16(4):530. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Limitations in Maca Science

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To date, maca colors have been grossly overlooked in the methodology of published research studies. A review paper in 2024 by Minich et al. found that of the 30 human trials published on maca, only 50% of them reported the color within the methodology section of the study (47). With the research on maca dating back to the 1960s and its use in traditional Peruvian culture since the 1500s, it is surprising that so little research has been conducted on humans for a variety of clinical uses, given the findings in animal or cell studies.

Additionally, details on how maca was prepared are also lacking in the methodology sections of many studies. Maca that is raw, gelatinized, or an extract has variability in the active compounds and therefore can provide variable outcomes (47).

The doses used in clinical trials vary greatly, from 300 to 5000 mg daily. Additionally, maca was not always provided as a stand-alone therapy, creating limitations in how the outcomes were impacted by maca, other therapies, or the combination of therapies.

In general, consistency is lacking in the methodology sections of the literature on maca. Based on the available literature at the present time, the methodology section should include:

 

  • Species used (Lepidium peruvianum or Lepidium meyenii)

  • Part of maca used (hypocotyl, leaves, etc), including size and weight

  • Color(s) used

  • Form of maca (raw, gelatinized, extracts, topical, standardization to a certain active constituent, such as glucosinolates.

  • Geographic location where it is cultivated, including elevation and details on the soil’s microbiome

  • Agricultural methods that include harvest time, drying, and post-harvesting practices.

  • Processing procedures

  • Nutritional composition, including phytochemicals

  • Known or proposed mechanism of actions


As with all areas of science, publication bias may be present in the literature on maca, despite efforts to offset this. Publication bias can include studies published due to their strengths as well as withholding negative outcomes. According to the Cochrane website, this could lead to the overestimation of the potential benefits and the underestimation of potential harms or risks. Unfortunately, studies are more likely to get accepted and published when there are significant, positive findings to report.

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Written by Kim Ross, DCN

Reviewed by Mona Fahoum, ND

Last Updated: August 30, 2024

 

References

 

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2.        World Flora Online (WHO) Plant List [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2023 Apr 28]. Lepidium L. Available from: https://wfoplantlist.org/plant-list/taxon/wfo-4000021089-2022-12?page=1

3.        Meissner HO, Mscisz A, Kedzia B, Pisulewski P, Piatkowska E. Peruvian maca: Two scientific names Lepidium Meyenii walpers and Lepidium Peruvianum chacon – Are they phytochemically-synonymous? International Journal of Biomedical Science. 2015;

4.        Gonzales GF. Ethnobiology and ethnopharmacology of Lepidium meyenii (Maca), a plant from the peruvian highlands. Vol. 2012, Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2012.

5.        Gonzales GF, Villaorduña L, Gasco M, Rubio J, Gonzales C. Maca (lepidium meyenii walp), a review of its biological properties. Rev Peru Med Exp Salud Publica. 2014;31(1).

6.        Gonzales GF, Gonzales C, Gonzales-Castañeda C. Lepidium meyenii (Maca): A Plant from the Highlands of Peru – from Tradition to Science. Forschende Komplementärmedizin / Research in Complementary Medicine. 2009;16(6):373–80.

7.        Beharry S, Heinrich M. Is the hype around the reproductive health claims of maca (Lepidium meyenii Walp.) justified? Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2018.

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9.        Huarancca Reyes T, Scartazza A, Pompeiano A, Guglielminetti L. Physiological responses of Lepidium meyenii plants to ultraviolet-B radiation challenge. BMC Plant Biol. 2019 Dec 7;19(1):186.

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11.      Geng P, Sun J, Chen P, Brand E, Frame J, Meissner H, et al. Characterization of Maca (Lepidium meyenii/Lepidium peruvianum) Using a Mass Spectral Fingerprinting, Metabolomic Analysis, and Genetic Sequencing Approach. Planta Med. 2020 Jul 20;86(10):674–85.

12.      Zhang J, Wang HM, Zhao YL, Zuo ZT, Wang YZ, Jin H. Comparison of Mineral Element Content in a Functional Food Maca (Lepidium meyenii Walp.) from Asia and South America. J Anal Methods Chem. 2015;2015.

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14.      Carvalho F V., Fonseca Santana L, Diogenes A. da Silva V, Costa SL, Zambotti-Villelae L, Colepicolo P, et al. Combination of a multiplatform metabolite profiling approach and chemometrics as a powerful strategy to identify bioactive metabolites in Lepidium meyenii (Peruvian maca). Food Chem. 2021 Dec;364:130453.

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20.      Meissner HO, Kapczynski W, Mscisz A, Lutomski J. Use of gelatinized maca (lepidium peruvianum) in early postmenopausal women. Int J Biomed Sci. 2005;

21.      Meissner HO, Reich-Bilinska H, Mscisz A, Kedzia B. Therapeutic Effects of Pre-Gelatinized Maca (Lepidium Peruvianum Chacon) used as a Non-Hormonal Alternative to HRT in Perimenopausal Women - Clinical Pilot Study. Int J Biomed Sci. 2006;

22.      Meissner HO, Mscisz A, Reich-Bilinska H, Mrozikiewicz P, Bobkiewicz-Kozlowska T, Kedzia B, et al. Hormone-Balancing Effect of Pre-Gelatinized Organic Maca (Lepidium peruvianum Chacon): (III) Clinical responses of early-postmenopausal women to Maca in double blind, randomized, Placebo-controlled, crossover configuration, outpatient study. Int J Biomed Sci. 2006;

23.      Zhang Y, Yu L, Jin W, Ao M. Effect of ethanolic extract of Lepidium meyenii Walp on serum hormone levels in ovariectomized rats. Indian J Pharmacol. 2014;46(4).

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25.      Gonzales C, Rubio J, Gasco M, Nieto J, Yucra S, Gonzales GF. Effect of short-term and long-term treatments with three ecotypes of Lepidium meyenii (MACA) on spermatogenesis in rats. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;103(3).

26.      Gonzales GF, Cordova A, Gonzales C, Chung A, Vega K, Villena A. Lepidium meyenii (Maca) improved semen parameters in adult men. Asian J Androl. 2001;3(4).

27.      Gonzales GF, Gonzales-Castañeda C, Gasco M. A mixture of extracts from Peruvian plants (black maca and yacon) improves sperm count and reduced glycemia in mice with streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Toxicol Mech Methods. 2013;23(7).

28.      Inoue N, Farfan C, Gonzales GF. Effect of butanolic fraction of yellow and black maca (Lepidium meyenii) on the sperm count of adult mice. Andrologia. 2016;48(8).

29.      Lee HW, Lee MS, Qu F, Lee JW, Kim E. Maca (Lepidium meyenii Walp.) on semen quality parameters: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Pharmacol. 2022;13.

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31.      Rubio J, Yucra S, Gasco M, Gonzales GF. Dose–response effect of black maca ( Lepidium meyenii ) in mice with memory impairment induced by ethanol. Toxicol Mech Methods. 2011 Oct 22;21(8):628–34.

32.      Liu X, Rubio J, Qiong W, Jiang Z, Dang H, Chen SL, et al. Aqueous extract of black maca (Lepidium meyenii) on memory impairment induced by ovariectomy in mice. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2011;2011.

33.      Ybañez-Julca RO, Quispe-Díaz IM, Asunción-Alvarez D, Sánchez-Muñoz K, Vargas-Goñas A, Morote-Guzman J, et al. Antidepressant-like behavioral and spatial memory effects in peruvian red maca (lepidium meyenii)-treated rats. Pharmacognosy Journal. 2021;13(1).

34.      Tarabasz D, Szczeblewski P, Laskowski T, PÅ‚aziÅ„ski W, Baranowska-Wójcik E, Szwajgier D, et al. The Distribution of Glucosinolates in Different Phenotypes of Lepidium peruvianum and Their Role as Acetyl- and Butyrylcholinesterase Inhibitors—In Silico and In Vitro Studies. Int J Mol Sci. 2022 Apr 27;23(9):4858.

35.      Dording CM, Schettler PJ, Dalton ED, Parkin SR, Walker RSW, Fehling KB, et al. A double-blind placebo-controlled trial of maca root as treatment for antidepressant-induced sexual dysfunction in women. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2015;2015.

36.      Shin D, Jeon SH, Piao J, Park HJ, Tian WJ, Moon DG, et al. Efficacy and Safety of Maca (Lepidium meyenii) in Patients with Symptoms of Late-Onset Hypogonadism: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial. World Journal of Men’s Health. 2023;41(3).

37.      Gonzales GF, Vasquez V, Rodriguez D, Maldonado C, Mormontoy J, Portella J, et al. Effect of two different extracts of red maca in male rats with testosterone-induced prostatic hyperplasia. Asian J Androl. 2007;9(2).

38.      Gonzales GF, Miranda S, Nieto J, Fernández G, Yucra S, Rubio J, et al. Red maca (Lepidium meyenii) reduced prostate size in rats. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2005 Jan 20;3:5.

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40.      Gonzales C, Leiva-Revilla J, Rubio J, Gasco M, Gonzales GF. Effect of red maca (Lepidium meyenii) on prostate zinc levels in rats with testosterone-induced prostatic hyperplasia. Andrologia. 2012;44(SUPPL.1).

41.      Gasco M, Villegas L, Yucra S, Rubio J, Gonzales GF. Dose-response effect of Red Maca (Lepidium meyenii) on benign prostatic hyperplasia induced by testosterone enanthate. Phytomedicine. 2007;

42.      Stone M, Ibarra A, Roller M, Zangara A, Stevenson E. A pilot investigation into the effect of maca supplementation on physical activity and sexual desire in sportsmen. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009;126(3).

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44.      Orhan C, Gencoglu H, Tuzcu M, Sahin N, Ojalvo SP, Sylla S, et al. Maca could improve endurance capacity possibly by increasing mitochondrial biogenesis pathways and antioxidant response in exercised rats. J Food Biochem. 2022 Jul;46(7):e14159.

45.      Gonzales GF, Córdova A, Vega K, Chung A, Villena A, Góñez C, et al. Effect of Lepidium meyenii (MACA) on sexual desire and its absent relationship with serum testosterone levels in adult healthy men. Andrologia. 2002;

46.      Vásquez-Velásquez C, Gasco M, Fano-Sizgorich D, Gonzales GF. Inflammatory pathway employed by Red Maca to treat induced benign prostatic hyperplasia in rats. Andrologia. 2020;52(3).

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